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Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science

Richard Saferstein

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This best-selling text, written for the non-scientist, is appropriate for a wide variety of students, including criminal justice, law enforcement, law, and more! Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11th edition, strives to make the technology of the modern crime laboratory clear and comprehensible to the non-scientist. The nature of physical evidence is defined, and the limitations that technology and current knowledge impose on its individualization and characterization are examined. By combining case stories with applicable technology, Criminalistics endeavors to capture the pulse and fervor of forensic science investigations. A major portion of the text centers on discussions of the common items of physical evidence encountered at crime scenes. These chapters include descriptions of forensic analysis, as well as updated techniques for the proper collection and preservation of evidence at crime scenes. Particular attention is paid to the meaning and role of probability in interpreting the evidential significance of scientifically evaluated evidence.

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Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science For these Global Editions, the editorial team at Pearson has collaborated with educators across the world to address a wide range of subjects and requirements, equipping students with the best possible learning tools. This Global Edition preserves the cutting-edge approach and pedagogy of the original, but also features alterations, customization and adaptation from the North American version. Global edition Global edition Global edition Eleventh edition Saferstein Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you purchased this book within the United States or Canada you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author. Eleventh Edition Richard Saferstein Pearson Global Edition SAFERSTEIN_1292062029_mech.indd 1 28/03/14 5:41 PM >>>>>>>>>>>> edition 11 Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science Global Edition Richard Saferstein, Ph.D. Forensic Science Consultant, Mt. Laurel, New Jersey Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 1 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:1Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM Editorial Director: Vernon R. Anthony Head of Learning Asset Acquisition, Global Edition: Laura Dent Executive Editor: Gary Bauer Program Manager: Alicia Ritchey Development Editor: Elisa Rogers, 4development Editorial Assistant: Lynda Cramer Director of Marketing: David Gesell Ma; rketing Manager: Mary Salzman Senior Marketing Coordinator: Alicia Wozniak Marketing Assistant: Les Roberts Team Lead for Project Management: JoEllen Gohr Project Manager: Jessica H. Sykes Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghoshal Associate Project Editor, Global Edition: Uttaran Das Gupta Procurement Specialist: Deidra M. Skahill Creative Director: Andrea Nix Art Director: Diane Y. Ernsberger Cover Designer: Media Project Manager: Leslie Brado Media Coordinator: April Cleland Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Full-Service Project Management: Shyam Ramasubramony, S4Carlisle Publishing Services Cover Image: © kilukilu/Shutterstock Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM 20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2015 The rights of Richard Saferstein to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11th edition, ISBN 978-0-133-45882-4, by Richard Saferstein, published by Pearson Education © 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers make no representations about the suitability of the information contained in the documents and related g raphics published as part of the services for any purpose. All such documents and related graphics are provided "as is" without warranty of any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers hereby disclaim all warranties and conditions with regard to this information, including all warranties and conditions of merchantability, whether express, implied or statutory, fitness for a particular purpose, title and non-infringement. In no event shall Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers be liable for any special, indirect or consequential damages or any damages whatsoever resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether in an action of contract, negligence or other tortious action, arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information available from the services. The documents and related graphics contained herein could include technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. Changes are p eriodically added to the information herein. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers may make improvements and/or changes in the product(s) and/or the program(s) described herein at any time. Partial screen shots may be viewed in full within the software version specified. Microsoft® and Windows® are registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation in the U.S.A. and other countries. This book is not sponsored or endorsed by or affiliated with the Microsoft Corporation. ISBN 10: 1-292-06202-9 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06202-0 (Print) ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06867-1 (PDF) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 Typeset by S4Carlisle Publishing Services in Times Roman 9/10. Printed and bound by Courier Kendallville in The United States of America. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 2 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:2Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM To the memory of Fran and Michael # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 3 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:3Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM This page is intentionally left blank. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 4 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:4Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM brief contents preface 11 about the author 17 chapter 11 chapter 1 Science and Technology in Criminal Investigation Drug Abuse and Drug Evidence 21 chapter 12 chapter 2 Crime-Scene Investigation Forensic Toxicology 47 Examination of Metals, Paint, and Soil 77 Forensic Serology 93 371 chapter 15 chapter 5 The Role of Forensic Experts in Death Investigation DNA: The Indispensable Forensic Science Tool 395 117 chapter 16 chapter 6 Detecting Crimes with Fingerprints 143 Investigation of Arson and Explosions chapter 7 chapter 17 The Microscope and Its Forensic Applications Scientific Examination of Documents 167 chapter 8 chapter 18 Firearms, Tool Marks, and Other Impressions Computer Forensics 185 Mobile Device Forensics 221 chapter 10 Evidentiary Value of Hair and Fibers 425 455 473 chapter 19 chapter 9 Forensic Analysis of Matter, Light, and Glass 345 chapter 14 chapter 4 Crime-Scene Reconstruction: Bloodstain Evidence 317 chapter 13 chapter 3 Assessing the Physical Evidence 277 501 appendixes 513 index 525 249 5 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 5 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:5Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM contents preface 11 about the author 17 The Significance of Physical Evidence Forensic Databases chapter 1 Science and Technology in Criminal Investigation 21 Definition and Scope of Forensic Science History and Development of Forensic Science Crime Laboratories Organization of a Crime Laboratory Services of the Crime Laboratory Functions of the Forensic Scientist 22 24 27 28 30 32 Case Files Dr. Coppolino's Deadly House Calls Other Forensic Science Services Review Questions 42 Application and Critical Thinking 43 Further References 45 Case Files The Center City Rapist NIBIN Links Handgun to Suspects 88 Case Files Aztec Gold Metallic Hit and Run 89 Chapter Summary 90 Review Questions 90 Application and Critical Thinking 91 Further References 91 chapter 4 47 48 66 Review Questions 68 Application and Critical Thinking 69 Case Files Further References 70 Blood-Spatter Evidence case analysis 70 Case Study 71 chapter 3 93 Crime-Scene Reconstruction General Features of Bloodstain Formation Impact Bloodstain Spatter Patterns More Bloodstain Spatter Patterns 67 94 95 97 101 102 Other Bloodstain Patterns Documenting Bloodstain Pattern Evidence 104 108 Case Files Bloodstain Reconstruction 110 Chapter Summary 112 Review Questions 112 Application and Critical Thinking 114 Further References 115 Assessing the Physical Evidence 77 Common Types of Physical Evidence 88 Case Files Chapter Summary The Enrique Camarena Case: A Forensic Nightmare 88 Crime-Scene Reconstruction: Bloodstain Evidence chapter 2 Processing the Crime Scene Legal Considerations at the Crime Scene Gerald Wallace 39 42 Crime-Scene Investigation Case Files 36 Chapter Summary 79 85 78 6 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 6 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:6Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlWisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM contents 7 The Comparison Microscope The Stereoscopic Microscope The Polarizing Microscope The Microspectrophotometer The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Forensic Palynology: Pollen and Spores as Evidence chapter 5 The Role of Forensic Experts in Death Investigation Role of the Forensic Pathologist Role of the Forensic Anthropologist 117 118 128 Role of the Forensic Entomologist 134 Clues from the Cornfield 135 Case Files The Danielle Van Dam Murder Case 136 Chapter Summary 137 Review Questions 138 Application and Critical Thinking 139 Further References 141 chapter 6 Detecting Crimes with Fingerprints History of Fingerprinting Fundamental Principles of Fingerprints Classification of Fingerprints Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems Methods of Detecting Fingerprints 143 144 145 150 Case Files The Mayfield Affair Preservation of Developed Prints Digital Imaging for Fingerprint Enhancement 154 Review Questions 163 Application and Critical Thinking 164 Further References 165 183 Further References 183 Sacco and Vanzetti 185 186 188 194 195 Gunpowder Residues Serial Number Restoration Collection and Preservation of Firearms Evidence Tool Marks Other Impressions 198 204 205 206 209 Case Files The O. J. Simpson Trial—Who Left the Impressions at the Crime Scene? 216 Chapter Summary 216 Review Questions 217 Application and Critical Thinking 218 Further References 219 chapter 9 The Microscope and Its Forensic Applications 167 168 169 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 7 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:7Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd 182 Application and Critical Thinking Forensic Analysis of Matter, Light, and Glass chapter 7 Basics of the Microscope The Compound Microscope Review Questions Case Files 160 162 182 Types of Firearms Bullet and Cartridge Comparisons Automated Firearms Search Systems 160 Chapter Summary Chapter Summary Firearms, Tool Marks, and Other Impressions 151 153 153 181 chapter 8 Case Files The Night Stalker 178 Case Files Case Files Identifying a Serial Killer's Victims 171 173 174 175 176 The Nature of Matter Forensic Analysis of Glass Glass Fractures Collection and Preservation of Glass Evidence C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long 221 222 235 241 243 DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM 8 contents Chapter Summary 244 Application and Critical Thinking 314 Review Questions 244 Further References 315 Review Questions for Inside the Science 245 Application and Critical Thinking 246 Further References 247 Forensic Toxicology chapter 10 Evidentiary Value of Hair and Fibers Forensic Examination of Hair Morphology of Hair Identification and Comparison of Hair 249 250 250 255 Case Files The Central Park Jogger Case Revisited Collection and Preservation of Hair Evidence Forensic Examination of Fibers 256 258 259 Case Files The Ennis Cosby Homicide Identification and Comparison of Manufactured Fibers chapter 12 259 Role of Forensic Toxicology Toxicology of Alcohol Testing for Intoxication Analysis of Blood for Alcohol Alcohol and the Law The Role of the Toxicologist Collection and Preservation of Fiber Evidence Michael Jackson: The Demise of a Superstar Accidental Overdose: The Tragedy of Anna Nicole Smith Joann Curley: Caught by a Hair The Drug Recognition Expert 270 271 271 Review Questions for Inside the Science 272 Application and Critical Thinking 273 Further References 275 chapter 11 337 338 Chapter Summary 341 Review Questions 341 Review Questions for Inside the Science 342 Application and Critical Thinking 343 Further References 343 chapter 13 Examination of Metals, Paint, and Soil Forensic Analysis of Trace Elements 345 346 Case Files Drug Abuse and Drug Evidence 277 Drug Dependence Types of Drugs Drug-Control Laws Collection and Preservation of Drug Evidence Forensic Drug Analysis Spectrophotometry Mass Spectrometry 333 Case Files 268 Chapter Summary 332 Case Files 264 Review Questions 318 318 322 327 328 331 Case Files Case Files Fatal Vision Revisited 317 Death by Radiation Poisoning 355 Forensic Examination of Paint 278 280 292 Case Files 294 294 305 308 Case Files The Predator 356 363 Forensic Analysis of Soil 364 Soil: The Silent Witness 366 Chapter Summary 367 Review Questions 368 Chapter Summary 311 Review Questions for Inside the Science 369 Review Questions 312 Application and Critical Thinking 369 Review Questions for Inside the Science 314 Further References 369 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 8 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:8Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM contents 9 chapter 14 Forensic Serology The Nature of Blood Immunoassay Techniques Forensic Characterization of Bloodstains Principles of Heredity Forensic Characterization of Semen Collection and Preservation of Rape Evidence chapter 16 371 372 376 Investigation of Arson and Explosions Forensic Investigation of Arson The Chemistry of Fire Searching the Fire Scene Collection and Preservation of Arson Evidence Analysis of Flammable Residues Explosions and Explosives Collection and Analysis of Evidence of Explosives 376 382 384 387 Case Files A DNA Bonus 390 425 426 426 432 435 436 437 444 Chapter Summary 391 Case Files Review Questions 391 Liquid Explosives Review Questions for Inside the Science 392 Chapter Summary 449 Application and Critical Thinking 393 Review Questions 450 Further References 393 Review Questions for Inside the Science 451 Application and Critical Thinking 451 Further References 453 chapter 15 DNA: The Indispensable Forensic Science Tool What Is DNA? DNA at Work Replication of DNA DNA Typing with Short Tandem Repeats The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) Mitochondrial DNA 395 396 398 399 chapter 17 Scientific Examination of Documents Document Examiner Handwriting Comparisons Typescript Comparisons Alterations, Erasures, and Obliterations Other Document Problems 399 410 410 Case Files Cold Case Hit Collection and Preservation of Biological Evidence for DNA Analysis 410 413 416 Case Files The JonBenét Ramsey Murder Case Chapter Summary 419 420 Review Questions for Inside the Science 421 Application and Critical Thinking 421 Further References 423 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 9 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:9Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd 456 456 461 463 465 Chapter Summary 470 Review Questions 471 Application and Critical Thinking 471 Further References 471 Computer Forensics 417 Review Questions 455 chapter 18 Case Files Contact Lens Evidence 445 From Input to Output: How Does the Computer Work? Storing and Retrieving Data Processing the Electronic Crime Scene Analysis of Electronic Data Forensic Analysis of Internet Data Forensic Investigation of Internet Communications C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long 473 474 479 480 483 489 491 DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM 10 contents Mobile Forensics 495 Chapter Summary 497 Review Questions 497 Application and Critical Thinking 498 Further References 499 Hybrid Crime Assessment: Fitting the Mobile Device into the Digital Forensic Investigation chapter 19 Mobile Device Forensics The Mobile Device Neighborhood: What Makes a Mobile Device "Mobile"? Forensic Challenges: Mobile Devices as Small Computers—Sort Of Extracting Useful Data: The Differences in Various Types of Mobile Devices Mobile Device Architecture: What Is Inside the Device and What Is It Used For? Analyzing Mobile Devices: Finding Forensically Valuable Artifacts 501 505 506 I II III IV 510 Review Questions 511 Application and Critical Thinking 512 Further References 512 Handbook of Forensic Services—FBI 514 Instructions for Collecting Gunshot Residue (GSR) 515 Chemical Formulas for Latent Fingerprint Development 517 Chemical Formulas for Development of Footwear Impressions in Blood 521 index 525 508 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 10 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:10 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd Chapter Summary appendixes 502 503 509 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM preface New to This Edition • Chapters have been rearranged to integrate scientific methodology with actual forensic applications. • Chapter 12 in the 10th edition has been moved to the position of Chapter 4 in the 11th edition. • Chapter 16 has been moved to the position of Chapter 6. • Chapter 17 has been moved to the position of Chapter 8. • Material from Chapters 4 and 5 has been moved into Chapters 9 and 11. • Material from Chapter 13 has been moved into Chapter 10. • Chapter 8 has been moved to the position of Chapter 11. • Chapter 9 has been moved to the position of Chapter 12. • Material from Chapters 4, 6, and 13 has been moved to Chapter 13. • Chapter 10 has been moved to the position of Chapter 14. • Chapter 11 has been moved to the position of Chapter 15. • Material from Chapters 14 and 15 has been moved to Chapter 16. • Chapter 18 has been moved to the position of Chapter 17. • Chapter 19 has been moved to the position of Chapter 18. • "Inside the Science" boxes highlight technological and scientific aspects of select chapter topics. Chapters that include one or more of these boxes also include end-of-chapter review questions relating to the box's content. • New Application and Critical Thinking questions have been added to select chapters. • Chapter 2, "Crime-Scene Investigation," has been revised to include expanded coverage of the collection and preservation of DNA evidence, as well as safety protocols required to ensure the well-being of CSI personnel at crime scenes. • Chapter 5, "The Role of Forensic Experts in Death Investigation," is a new chapter that emphasizes the roles of the forensic pathologist, forensic anthropologist, and forensic entomologist in death investigation, paying particular attention to autopsy procedures and time-of-death determinations. • Chapter 18, "Computer Forensics," has been reorganized and updated • Chapter 19, "Mobile Device Forensics" is completely new to the text. Forensics on mobile devices, like cell phones, can provide an overlay to physical evidence and forensic timelines to give a clearer picture of the events preceding and following a crime event. 11 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 11 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:11 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM 12 preface Key Features of the Eleventh Edition The eleventh edition, which is now available in a variety of print and electronic formats, presents modern forensic science approaches and techniques with the aid of real-life examples, up to date information, and interactive media. Key features include: Headline News stories at the beginning of each chapter introduce readers to the chapter topics by describing high-profile crimes and the related forensic science techniques used in the investigations. headline news Casey Anthony: The CSI Effect? Few criminal proceedings have captured the attention of the American public or have invoked stronger emotions than the Casey Anthony murder trial. AP Im (a) Courtesy Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories, Youngsville, NC, www.sirchie.com Courtesy Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories, Youngsville, NC, www.sirchie.com chApter 6 ages 140 How could a defendant who failed to report her two-year-old child missing for thirty-one days walk away scot-free from a murder conviction? This case had all the makings of a strong circumstantial case for the state. The state's theory was that Casey used chloroform to render her daughter unconscious, placed duct tape over Caylee's mouth and nose, and kept the body in the trunk for several days before disposing of it. Caylee's decomposed remains were discovered more than five months after she was reported missing. Have TV forensic dramas created an environment in the courtroom that necessitates the existence of physical evidence to directly link a defendant to a crime scene? The closest the state came to a direct link was a hair found in the trunk of Casey's car. However, the DNA test on the hair could only link the hair to Caylee's maternal relatives: Casey, her mother; her grandmother; and Casey's brother. No unique characteristics were found to link the duct tape on the body with that found in the Anthony home. No DNA, no fingerprints, no conviction. (b) FigURe 6–16 NEW! Inside the Science boxes throughout the text explore scientific phenomena and (a) A handheld fuming wand uses disposable cartridges containing cyanoacrylate. The wand istopics, used to develop at the crime scene and in the laboratory. technology in relation to select chapter and prints are accompanied by(b) Review Questions for Inside the Science fluoresce at the end of the chapter. field was minimal, and fingerprint specialists traditionally relied on three chemical techniques— To emit visible light when exposed to light of a shorter wavelength. iodine, ninhydrin, and silver nitrate—to reveal a hidden fingerprint. Then superglue fuming extended chemical development to prints deposited on nonporous surfaces. C/M/Y/K S4carliSle 04/12/13 11:47 PM Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 2 Title: Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 M01_SAFE8824_11_SE_CH01.indd 2 Publishing Services inside the science Directional mirror The first hint of things to come was the discovery that latent fingerprints could be visualized by exposure to laser light. This laser method took advantage of the fact that perspiration contains a variety of components that fluoresce when illuminated by laser light. Fluorescence occurs when a substance absorbs light and reemits the light in wavelengths longer than the illuminating source. Importantly, substances that emit light or fluoresce are more readily seen with either the naked eye or through photography than are non-light-emitting materials. The high sensitivity of fluorescence serves as the underlying principle of many of the new chemical techniques used to visualize latent fingerprints. The earliest use of fluorescence to visualize fingerprints came with the direct illumination of a fingerprint with argon–ion lasers. This laser type was chosen because its blue-green light output induced some of the perspiration components of a fingerprint to fluoresce (see figure). The major drawback of this approach is that the perspiration components of a fingerprint are often present in quantities too minute to observe even with the aid of fluorescence. The fingerprint examiner, wearing safety goggles containing optical filters, visually examines the specimen being exposed to the laser light. The filters absorb the laser light and permit the wavelengths at which latent-print residues fluoresce to pass through to the eyes of the # 150233 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 12 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:12 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd Dispersal lens Barrier filter Observer Schematic depicting latent-print detection with the aid of a laser. A fingerprint examiner, wearing safety goggles containing optical filters, examines the specimen being exposed to the laser light. The filter absorbs the laser light and permits the wavelengths at which latent-print residues fluoresce to pass through to the eyes of the wearer. wearer. The filter also protects the operator against eye damage from scattered or reflected laser light. Likewise, latent-print residue producing sufficient fluorescence can be photographed by placing this same filter across the lens of the camera. Examination of specimens and photography of the fluorescing latent prints are carried out in a darkened room. Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 140 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M06_SAFE8824_11_SE_CH06.indd 140 Laser FBI Fluorescence C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carliSle Publishing Services 10/12/13 3:13 PM DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM these prints against the crime-scene prints. AFIS computers are available from several different suppliers. Each system scans fingerprint images and detects and records information about minutiae (ridge endings and bifurcations); however, they do not all incorporate exactly the same features, coordinate systems, or units of measure to record fingerprint information. These software incompatibilities often mean that, although state systems can communicate with the FBI's IAFIS, they may not communicate with each other directly. Likewise, local and state systems frequently cannot share information with each other. Many of these technical problems will be resolved as more agencies follow transmission standards developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the FBI. preface 13 Methods of Detecting Fingerprints CaseThrough File common boxesusage, throughout the text present brief, real-life case examples that illustrate to the the term latent fingerprint has come to be associated with any fingerprint discovered at a crime Sometimes, however, prints found the scene of a crime are forensic science topics andscene. techniques described in atthe chapters. The Night Stalker Richard Ramirez committed his first murder in June 1984. His victim was a 79-year-old woman who was stabbed repeatedly and sexually assaulted and then had her throat slashed. It would be eight months before Ramirez murdered again. In the spring, Ramirez began a murderous rampage that resulted in 13 additional killings and 5 rapes. His modus operandi was to enter a home through an open window, shoot the male residents, and savagely rape his female victims. He scribed a pentagram on the wall of one of his victims and the words Jack the Knife, and was reported by another to force her to "swear to Satan" during the assault. His identity still unknown, the news media dubbed him the "Night Stalker." As the body count continued to rise, public hysteria and a media frenzy prevailed. The break in the case came when the license plate of what seemed to be a suspicious car related to a sighting of the Night Stalker was reported to the police. The police determined that the car had been stolen and eventually located it, abandoned in a parking lot. After processing the car for prints, police found one usable partial fingerprint. This fingerprint was entered into the Los Angeles Police Department's brand-new AFIS computerized fingerprint system. The Night Stalker was identified as Richard Ramirez, who had been fingerprinted following a traffic violation some years before. Police searching the home of one of his friends found the gun used to commit the murders, and jewelry belonging Corbis case files quite visible to the eye, and the word latent is a misnomer. Actually, there are three kinds of Richard Ramirez, the Night Stalker. to his victims was found in the possession of Ramirez's sister. Ramirez was convicted of murder and sentenced to death in 1989. Application and Critical Thinking questions at the end of each chapter challenge students # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 135 C/M/Y/K S4carliSle Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Short / Normal / Long of question types, including to demonstrateTitle: their understanding of the material through a variety hypothetical scenarios and sets of images for visual identification and analysis. Answers to these questions are provided in the Instructor's Manual. DESIGN SERVICES OF M06_SAFE8824_11_SE_CH06.indd 135 10/12/13 3:13 PM Publishing Services hAirs And fibers 255 application and critical thinking 1. Indicate the phase of growth of each of the following hairs: a. The root is club-shaped b. The hair has a follicular tag c. The root bulb is flame-shaped d. The root is elongated 2. A criminalist studying a dyed sample hair notices that the dyed color ends about 1.5 centimeters from the tip of the hair. Approximately how many weeks before the examination was the hair dyed? Explain your answer. 3. Following are descriptions of several hairs; based on these descriptions, indicate the likely race of the person from whom the hair originated: a. Evenly distributed, fine pigmentation b. Continuous medullation c. Dense, uneven pigmentation d. Wavy with a round cross-section a. ___________ b. ___________ c. ___________ d. ___________ e. ___________ f. ___________ g. ___________ h. ___________ Richard Saferstein, Ph.D. 4. Criminalist Pete Evett is collecting fiber evidence from a murder scene. He notices fibers on the victim's shirt and trousers, so he places both of these items of clothing in a plastic bag. He also sees fibers on a sheet near the victim, so he balls up the sheet and places it in a separate plastic bag. Noticing fibers adhering to the windowsill from which the attacker gained entrance, Pete carefully removes them with his fingers and places them in a regular envelope. What mistakes, if any, did Pete make while collecting this evidence? 5. For each of the following human hair samples, indicate the medulla pattern present. i. ___________ # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 13 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:13 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM 14 preface Public Fascination with Forensic Science Many readers of this book have been drawn to the subject of forensic science by the assortment of television shows about scientific crime investigation. Story lines depicting the crime-solving abilities of forensic scientists have greatly excited the imagination of the general public. Furthermore, a constant of forensic science is how frequently its applications become front-page news. Whether the story is the sudden death of pop music superstar Michael Jackson, sniper shootings, or the tragic consequences of the terrorist attacks of 9/11, forensic science is at the forefront of the public response. During the highly publicized O. J. Simpson criminal and civil trials, forensic scientists systematically placed Simpson at the crime scene through DNA analyses, hair and fiber comparisons, and footwear impressions. As millions of Americans watched the case unfold, they, in a sense, became students of forensic science. Intense media coverage of the crime-scene search and investigation, as well as the ramifications of findings of physical evidence at the crime scene, became the subject of study, commentary, and conjecture. For instructors who have taught forensic science in the classroom, it comes as no surprise that forensic science can grab and hold the attention of those who otherwise would have no interest in any area of science. The O. J. Simpson case, for example, amply demonstrates the extent to which forensic science has intertwined with criminal investigation. Perhaps we can attribute our obsession with forensic science to the yearnings of a society bent on apprehending criminals but desirous of a system of justice that ensures the correctness of its verdicts. The level of sophistication that forensic science has brought to criminal investigations is formidable. But once one puts aside all the drama of a forensic science case, what remains is an academic subject emphasizing logic and technology. Purpose of This Book It is to this end—revealing that essence of forensic science—that the eleventh edition of Criminalistics is dedicated. The basic aim of the book is still to make the subject of forensic science clear and comprehensible to a wide variety of readers who are or plan to be aligned with the forensic science profession, as well as to those who have a curiosity about the subject's underpinnings. DNA profiling has altered the complexion of criminal investigation. DNA collected from saliva on a cup or from dandruff or sweat on a hat exemplifies the emergence of nontraditional forms of evidence collection at crime scenes. Currently, the criminal justice system is creating vast DNA data banks designed to snare criminals who are unaware of the consequences of leaving the minutest quantity of biological material behind at a crime scene. Focus on Cutting-Edge Tools and Techniques Through eleven editions, Criminalistics has strived to depict the role of the forensic scientist in the criminal justice system. The current edition builds on the content of its predecessors and updates the reader on the latest technologies available to crime laboratory personnel. The computer, the Internet, and mobile electronic devices have influenced all aspects of modern life, and forensic science is no exception. Chapter 18, "Computer Forensics," and Chapter 19, "Mobile Devices Forensics," explore the retrieval of computerized information thought to be lost or erased during the course of a criminal investigation and delve into the investigation of hacking incidents. A major portion of the text centers on discussions of the common items of physical evidence encountered at crime scenes. Various chapters include descriptions of forensic analysis, as well as updated techniques for the proper collection and preservation of evidence at crime scenes. The reader is offered the option of delving into the more difficult technical aspects of the subject by reading the "Inside the Science" features. This option can be bypassed without detracting from a basic comprehension of the subject of forensic science. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 14 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:14 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM preface 15 The implications of DNA profiling are important enough to warrant their inclusion in a separate chapter in Criminalistics. Chapter 15 describes the topic of DNA in a manner that is comprehensible and relevant to readers who lack a scientific background. The discussion defines DNA and explains its central role in controlling the body's chemistry. Finally, Chapter 15 explains the process of DNA typing and illustrates its application to criminal investigations through the presentation of actual case histories. A Grounded Approach The content of Criminalistics reflects the author's experience as both an active forensic scientist and an instructor of forensic science at the college level. The author assumes that readers have no prior knowledge of scientific principles or techniques. The areas of chemistry and biology relating to the analysis of physical evidence are presented with a minimum of scientific terminology and equations. The discussion involving chemistry and biology is limited to a minimum core of facts and principles that make the subject matter understandable and meaningful to the nonscientist. Although it is not the intent of this book to turn readers into scientists or forensic experts, the author would certainly be gratified if the book motivates some students to seek further scientific knowledge and perhaps direct their education toward careers in forensic science. Although Criminalistics is an outgrowth of a one-semester course offered as part of a criminal justice program at many New Jersey colleges, the value of the book is not limited to college students. Optimum utilization of crime laboratory services requires that criminal investigators have knowledge of the techniques and capabilities of the laboratory. That awareness extends beyond any summary that may be gleaned from departmental brochures dealing with the collection and packaging of physical evidence. Investigators must mesh knowledge of the principles and techniques of forensic science with logic and common sense to gain comprehensive insight into the meaning and significance of physical evidence and its role in criminal investigations. Forensic science begins at the crime scene. If the investigator cannot recognize, collect, and package evidence properly, no amount of equipment or expertise will salvage the situation. Likewise, there is a dire need to bridge the "communication gap" that currently exists among lawyers, judges, and forensic scientists. An intelligent evaluation of the scientist's data and any subsequent testimony will again depend on familiarity with the underlying principles of forensic science. Too many practitioners of the law profess ignorance of the subject or attempt to gain a superficial understanding of its meaning and significance only minutes before meeting the expert witness. It is hoped that the book will provide a painless route to comprehending the nature of the science. In order to merge theory with practice, actual forensic case histories are included in the text. The intent is for these illustrations to move forensic science from the domain of the abstract into the real world of criminal investigation. Instructor Supplements The following supplements are available for instructors using Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science: Instructor's Manual with Test Bank Standard PowerPoint Presentations Criminalistics is supported by online course solutions that include interactive learning odules, a variety of assessment tools, videos, simulations, and current event features. To access m supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/Saferstein, click the Instructor Resource Center link, and then click Request IRC access for an instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming e-mail including an instructor access code. Once you have received your code, go the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 15 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:15 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM 16 preface Acknowledgments I am most appreciative of the contribution that retired Lieutenant Andrew (Drew) Donofrio of New Jersey's Bergen County Prosecutor's Office and now a leading private computer forensic examiner made to this new edition of Criminalistics. I was fortunate to find in Drew a contributor who not only possesses extraordinary skill, knowledge, and hands-on experience with computer forensics, but was able to combine those attributes with sophisticated communication skills. Likewise, I was fortunate to have Dr. Peter Stephenson contribute to this book on the subject of mobile forensics. He brings skills as a cybercriminologist, author, and educator in digital forensics. Many people provided assistance and advice in the preparation of this book. Many faculty members, colleagues, and friends have read and commented on various portions of the text. Particular thanks go to the following people for their critical reading and discussions of the manuscript: Norman Demeter, John Lintott, Charles Midkiff, and Raymond Murray. In a ddition, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of Jeffrey C. Kercheval, Robert Thompson, Roger Ely, Jose R. Almirall, Darlene Brezinski, Michael Malone, Anita Wonder, Robert J. Phillips, D avid Pauly, Dr. Barbara Needell, Joshua Wiborne, Robin D. Williams, Peter Diaczuk, Jacqueline E. Joseph, and Robert Welsh. I'm appreciative for the contributions, reviews, and comments that Dr. Claus Speth, Dr. Mark Taff, Dr. Elizabeth Laposata, Thomas P. Mauriello, and Michelle D. Miranda provided during the preparation of Chapter 5, "The Role of Forensic Experts in Death Investigation." Thanks also to the following reviewers: Earl Ballou, Jr., Palo Alto College; Adam C. Barton, Harrisburg Area Community College; Virginia G. Carson, Chapman University; David R Conklin, Trine University; April Babb Crisp, Regis University; Gilbert Ellis, Barry University; Darrell C. Hawkins, University of Cincinnati—Clermont College; Richard A. Jensen, Hofstra University; Craig William Laker, Trine University; Rupendra Simlot, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey; Anne Strouth, North Central State College; Luke Tolley, Southern Illinois University; and Oluseyi A. Vanderpuye, Albany State University. The assistance and research efforts of Pamela Cook, Gonul Turhan, and Michelle Tetreault are an integral part of this text and were invaluable to the book's success. I am also appreciative of the time and talent given by Peggy Cole and this book's production editor, Lori Bradshaw. I am grateful to the law enforcement agencies, governmental agencies, private individuals, and equipment manufacturers cited in the text for contributing their photographs and illustrations. Finally, I particularly wish to express my appreciation to Major E. R. Leibe (retired) and Major V. P. O'Donoghue (retired) for their encouragement and support. Any author of a textbook must be prepared to contribute countless hours to the task, often at the expense of family obligations. My efforts would have fallen well short of completion without the patience and encouragement of my wife, Gail. Her typing and critical readings of the manuscript, as well as her strength of character under circumstances that were less than ideal, will always be remembered. Richard Saferstein, Ph.D. Pearson wishes to thank and acknowledge the following persons for their contribution to the Global Edition: Contributor: Nuzhat Parveen Khan, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Reviewers: Lovely Dasgupta, The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata Ramakrishna Das P.R., National Law University, Odisha # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 16 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:16 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM about the author Richard Saferstein, Ph.D., retired in 1991 after serving 21 years as the chief forensic scientist of the New Jersey State Police Laboratory, one of the largest crime laboratories in the United States. He currently acts as a consultant for attorneys and the media in the area of forensic science. During the O. J. Simpson criminal trial, Dr. Saferstein provided extensive commentary on forensic aspects of the case for the Rivera Live show, the E! television network, ABC radio, and various radio talk shows. Dr. Saferstein holds degrees from the City College of New York and earned his doctorate degree in chemistry in 1970 from the City University of New York. From 1972 to 1991, he taught an introductory forensic science course in the criminal justice programs at the College of New Jersey and Ocean County College. These teaching experiences played an influential role in Dr. Saferstein's authorship in 1977 of the widely used introductory textbook Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, currently in this eleventh edition. Saferstein's basic philosophy in writing Criminalistics is to make forensic science understandable and meaningful to the nonscience reader, while giving the reader an appreciation for the scientific principles that underlie the subject. Dr. Saferstein has authored or co-authored more than 45 technical papers and chapters covering a variety of forensic topics. Dr. Saferstein has co-authored Lab Manual for Criminalistics (Pearson, 2015) to be used in conjunction with this text. He is also the author of Forensic Science: An Introduction (Pearson, 2008 and 2011) and Forensic Science: From the Crime Scene to the Crime Lab (2009 and 2015). He has also edited the widely used professional reference books Forensic Science Handbook, Volumes I, II, and III, 2nd edition (published in 2002, 2005, and 2010, respectively, by Pearson). Dr. Saferstein is a member of the American Chemical Society, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the Canadian Society of Forensic Scientists, the International Association for Identification, the Northeastern Association of Forensic Scientists, and the Society of Forensic Toxicologists. He is the recipient of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 2006 Paul L. Kirk Award for distinguished service and contributions to the field of criminalistics. 17 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 17 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:17 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM This page is intentionally left blank. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 18 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:18 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM >>>>>>>>>>>> edition 11 Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science Global Edition # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 19 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title:19 Criminalistics: A01_SAFE2020_11_GE_FM.indd C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:59 AM headline news Casey Anthony: The CSI Effect? Few criminal proceedings have captured the attention of the American public or have invoked stronger emotions than the Casey Anthony murder trial. ages AP Im How could a defendant who failed to report her two-year-old child missing for thirty-one days walk away scot-free from a murder conviction? This case had all the makings of a strong circumstantial case for the state. The state's theory was that Casey used chloroform to render her daughter unconscious, placed duct tape over Caylee's mouth and nose, and kept the body in the trunk for several days before disposing of it. Caylee's decomposed remains were discovered more than five months after she was reported missing. Have TV forensic dramas created an environment in the courtroom that necessitates the existence of physical evidence to directly link a defendant to a crime scene? The closest the state came to a direct link was a hair found in the trunk of Casey's car. However, the DNA test on the hair could only link the hair to Caylee's maternal relatives: Casey, her mother; her grandmother; and Casey's brother. No unique characteristics were found to link the duct tape on the body with that found in the Anthony home. No DNA, no fingerprints, no conviction. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 20 Title: Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 20 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:30 AM chapter 1 science and technology in criminal investigation KEY TERMS Learning Objectives expert witness Locard's exchange principle scientific method After studying this chapter you should be able to: • Define and distinguish forensic science and criminalistics • Recognize the major contributors to the development of forensic science • Account for the rapid growth of forensic laboratories in the past forty years • Describe the services of a typical comprehensive crime laboratory in the criminal justice system • Compare and contrast the Frye and Daubert decisions relating to the admissibility of scientific evidence in the courtroom • Explain the role and responsibilities of the expert witness • Understand what specialized forensic services, aside from the crime laboratory, are generally available to law enforcement personnel # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 21 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 21 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:30 AM 22 chapter 1 Definition and Scope of Forensic Science Forensic science in its broadest definition is the application of science to law. As our society has grown more complex, it has become more dependent on rules of law to regulate the activities of its members. Forensic science applies the knowledge and technology of science to the definition and enforcement of such laws. Each year, as government finds it increasingly necessary to regulate the activities that most intimately influence our daily lives, science merges more closely with civil and criminal law. Consider, for example, the laws and agencies that regulate the quality of our food, the nature and potency of drugs, the extent of automobile emissions, the kind of fuel oil we burn, the purity of our drinking water, and the pesticides we use on our crops and plants. It would be difficult to conceive of a food or drug regulation or environmental protection act that could be effectively monitored and enforced without the assistance of scientific technology and the skill of the scientific community. Laws are continually being broadened and revised to counter the alarming increase in crime rates. In response to public concern, law enforcement agencies have expanded their patrol and investigative functions, hoping to stem the rising tide of crime. At the same time, they are looking more to the scientific community for advice and technical support for their efforts. Can the technology that put astronauts on the moon, split the atom, and eradicated most dreaded diseases be enlisted in this critical battle? Unfortunately, science cannot offer final and authoritative solutions to problems that stem from a maze of social and psychological factors. However, as the content of this book attests, science occupies an important and unique role in the criminal justice system—a role that relates to the scientist's ability to supply accurate and objective information about the events that have occurred at a crime scene. A good deal of work remains to be done if the full potential of science as applied to criminal investigations is to be realized. Because of the vast array of civil and criminal laws that regulate society, forensic science, in its broadest sense, has become so comprehensive a subject that a meaningful introductory textbook treating its role and techniques would be difficult to create and probably overwhelming to read. For this reason, we have narrowed the scope of the subject according to the most common definition: Forensic science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. Forensic science is an umbrella term encompassing a myriad of professions that use their skills to aid law enforcement officials in conducting their investigations. The diversity of professions practicing forensic science is illustrated by the eleven sections of the American Academy of Forensic Science, the largest forensic science organization in the world: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Criminalistics Digital and Multimedia Sciences Engineering Science General Jurisprudence Odontology Pathology/Biology Physical Anthropology Psychiatry/Behavioral Science Questioned Documents Toxicology Even this list of professions is not exclusive. It does not encompass skills such as fingerprint examination, firearm and tool mark examination, and photography. Obviously, to author a book covering all of the major activities of forensic science as they apply to the enforcement of criminal and civil laws by police agencies would be a major undertaking. Thus, this book will further restrict itself to discussions of the subjects of chemistry, biology, physics, geology, and computer technology, which are useful for determining the evidential value of crime-scene and related evidence. Forensic psychology, anthropology, and # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 22 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 22 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 23 SUN/Newscom odontology also encompass important and relevant areas of knowledge and practice in law enforcement, each being an integral part of the total forensic science service that is provided to any up-to-date criminal justice system. However, these subjects go beyond the intended scope of this book, and except for brief discussions, along with pointing the reader to relevant websites, the reader is referred elsewhere for discussions of their applications and techniques. Instead, this book focuses on the services of what has popularly become known as the crime laboratory, where the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences are practiced and applied to the analysis of crime-scene evidence. For many, the term criminalistics seems more descriptive than forensic science for describing the services of a crime laboratory. Regardless of his or her title—criminalist or forensic scientist—the trend of events has made the scientist in the crime laboratory an active participant in the criminal justice system. Prime-time television shows like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation have greatly increased the public's awareness of the use of science in criminal and civil investigations (Figure 1–1). However, by simplifying scientific procedures to fit the allotted airtime, these shows have created within both the public and the legal community unrealistic expectations of forensic science. In these shows, members of the CSI team collect evidence at the crime scene, process all evidence, question witnesses, interrogate suspects, carry out search warrants, and testify in court. In the real world, these tasks are almost always delegated to different people in different parts of the criminal justice system. Procedures that in reality could take days, weeks, months, or years appear on these shows to take mere minutes. This false image is significantly responsible for the public's high interest in and expectations for DNA evidence. The dramatization of forensic science on television has led the public to believe that every crime scene will yield forensic evidence, and it produces unrealistic expectations that a prosecutor's case should always be bolstered and supported by forensic evidence. This phenomenon is known as the "CSI effect." Some jurists have come to believe that this phenomenon ultimately detracts from the search for truth and justice in the courtroom. FIGURE 1–1 A scene from CSI, a forensic science television show. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 23 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 23 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 24 chapter 1 History and Development of Forensic Science Forensic science owes its origins first to the individuals who developed the principles and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence, and second to those who recognized the need to merge these principles into a coherent discipline that could be practically applied to a criminal justice system. Literary Roots © Paul C. Chauncey/CORBIS All Rights Reserved Today many believe that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle had a considerable influence on popularizing scientific crime-detection methods through his fictional character Sherlock Holmes (see Figure 1–2), who first applied the newly developing principles of serology (see Chapter 14), fingerprinting, firearms identification, and questioneddocument examination long before their value was first recognized and accepted by real-life criminal investigators. Holmes's feats excited the imagination of an emerging generation of forensic scientists and criminal investigators. Even in the first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet, published in 1887, we find examples of Doyle's uncanny ability to describe scientific methods of detection years before they were actually discovered and implemented. For instance, here Holmes probes and recognizes the potential usefulness of forensic serology to criminal investigation: FIGURE 1–2 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's legendary detective Sherlock Holmes applied many of the principles of modern forensic science long before they were adopted widely by police. "I've found it. I've found it," he shouted to my companion, running towards us with a test tube in his hand. "I have found a reagent which is precipitated by hemoglobin and by nothing else. . . . Why, man, it is the most practical medico-legal discovery for years. Don't you see that it gives us an infallible test for blood stains? . . . The old guaiacum test was very clumsy and uncertain. So is the microscopic examination for blood corpuscles. The latter is valueless if the stains are a few hours old. Now, this appears to act as well whether the blood is old or new. Had this test been invented, there are hundreds of men now walking the earth who would long ago have paid the penalty of their crimes. . . . Criminal cases are continually hinging upon that one point. A man is suspected of a crime months perhaps after it has been committed. His linen or clothes are examined and brownish stains discovered upon them. Are they blood stains, or rust stains, or fruit stains, or what are they? That is a question which has puzzled many an expert, and why? Because there was no reliable test. Now we have the Sherlock Holmes test, and there will no longer be any difficulty." Important Contributors to Forensic Science Many people can be cited for their specific contributions to the field of forensic science. The following is just a brief list of those who made the earliest contributions to formulating the disciplines that now constitute forensic science. Mathieu Orfila (1787–1853) Orfila is considered the father of forensic toxicology. A native of Spain, he ultimately became a renowned teacher of medicine in France. In 1814, Orfila published the first scientific treatise on the detection of poisons and their effects on animals. This treatise established forensic toxicology as a legitimate scientific endeavor. Bertillon devised the first scientific system of personal identification. In 1879, Bertillon began to develop the science of anthropometry (see Chapter 6), a systematic procedure of taking a series of body measurements as a means of distinguishing one individual from another (see Figure 1–3). For nearly two decades, this system was considered Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914) # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 24 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 24 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 25 Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories FIGURE 1–3 Bertillon's system of bodily measurements as used for the identification of an individual. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 25 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 25 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 26 chapter 1 the most accurate method of personal identification. Although anthropometry was eventually replaced by fingerprinting in the early 1900s, Bertillon's early efforts have earned him the distinction of being known as the father of criminal identification. Francis Galton (1822–1911) Galton undertook the first definitive study of fingerprints and developed a methodology of classifying them for filing. In 1892, he published a book titled Finger Prints, which contained the first statistical proof supporting the uniqueness of his method of personal identification. His work went on to describe the basic principles that form the present system of identification by fingerprints. Leone Lattes (1887–1954) In 1901, Dr. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood can be grouped into different categories. These blood groups or types are now recognized as A, B, AB, and O. The possibility that blood grouping could be a useful characteristic for the identification of an individual intrigued Dr. Lattes, a professor at the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Turin in Italy. In 1915, he devised a relatively simple procedure for determining the blood group of a dried bloodstain, a technique that he immediately applied to criminal investigations. To determine whether a particular gun has fired a bullet requires a comparison of the bullet with one that has been test-fired from the suspect's weapon. Goddard, a U.S. Army colonel, refined the techniques of such an examination by using the comparison microscope. From the mid-1920s on, Goddard's expertise established the comparison microscope as the indispensable tool of the modern firearms examiner. Calvin Goddard (1891–1955) Albert S. Osborn (1858–1946) Osborn's development of the fundamental principles of document examination was responsible for the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts. In 1910, Osborn authored the first significant text in this field, Questioned Documents. This book is still considered a primary reference for document examiners. Dr. McCrone's career paralleled startling advances in sophisticated analytical technology. Nevertheless, during his lifetime McCrone became the world's preeminent microscopist. Through his books, journal publications, and research institute, McCrone was a tireless advocate for applying microscopy to analytical problems, particularly forensic science cases. McCrone's exceptional communication skills made him a much-soughtafter instructor, and he was responsible for educating thousands of forensic scientists throughout the world in the application of microscopic techniques. Dr. McCrone used microscopy, often in conjunction with other analytical methodologies, to examine evidence in thousands of criminal and civil cases throughout a long and illustrious career. Walter C. McCrone (1916–2002) Hans Gross (1847–1915) Gross wrote the first treatise describing the application of scientific disciplines to the field of criminal investigation in 1893. A public prosecutor and judge in Graz, Austria, Gross spent many years studying and developing principles of criminal investigation. In his classic book Handbuch für Untersuchungsrichter als System der Kriminalistik (later published in English under the title Criminal Investigation), he detailed the assistance that investigators could expect from the fields of microscopy, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, zoology, botany, anthropometry, and fingerprinting. He later introduced the forensic journal Archiv für Kriminal Anthropologie und Kriminalistik, which still serves as a medium for reporting improved methods of scientific crime detection. Although Gross was a strong advocate of the use of the scientific method in criminal investigation, he did not make any specific technical contributions to this philosophy. Locard, a Frenchman, demonstrated how the principles enunciated by Gross could be incorporated within a workable crime laboratory. Locard's formal education was in both medicine and law. In 1910, he persuaded the Lyons police department to give him two attic rooms and two assistants to start a police laboratory. During Locard's first years of work, the only available instruments were a microscope and a rudimentary spectrometer. However, his enthusiasm quickly overcame the technical and monetary deficiencies he encountered. From these modest beginnings, Locard's research and accomplishments became known throughout the world by forensic scientists and criminal investigators. Edmond Locard (1877–1966) # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 26 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 26 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 27 Eventually he became the founder and director of the Institute of Criminalistics at the University of Lyons; this quickly developed into a leading international center for study and research in forensic science. Locard believed that when a person comes in contact with an object or person, a cross- transfer of materials occurs (Locard's exchange principle). Locard maintained that every Locard's exchange principle criminal can be connected to a crime by dust particles carried from the crime scene. This con- Whenever two objects come into cept was reinforced by a series of successful and well-publicized investigations. In one case, contact with one another, there presented with counterfeit coins and the names of three suspects, Locard urged the police to is exchange of materials between bring the suspects' clothing to his laboratory. On careful examination, he located small metal- them. lic particles in all the garments. Chemical analysis revealed that the particles and coins were composed of exactly the same metallic elements. Confronted with this evidence, the suspects were arrested and soon confessed to the crime. After World War I, Locard's successes served as an impetus for the formation of police laboratories in Vienna, Berlin, Sweden, Finland, and Holland. Crime Laboratories The most ambitious commitment to forensic science occurred in the United States with the systematic development of national and state crime laboratories. This development greatly hastened the progress of forensic science. In 1932, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), under the directorship of J. Edgar Hoover, organized a national laboratory that offered forensic services to all law enforcement agencies in the country. During its formative stages, agents consulted extensively with business executives, manufacturers, and scientists whose knowledge and experience were useful in guiding the new facility through its infancy. The FBI Laboratory is now the world's largest forensic laboratory, performing more than one million examinations every year. Its accomplishments have earned it worldwide recognition, and its structure and organization have served as a model for forensic laboratories formed at the state and local levels in the United States as well as in other countries. Furthermore, the opening of the FBI's Forensic Science Research and Training Center in 1981 gave the United States, for the first time, a facility dedicated to conducting research to develop new and reliable scientific methods that can be applied to forensic science. This facility is also used to train crime laboratory personnel in the latest forensic science techniques and methods. The oldest forensic laboratory in the United States is that of the Los Angeles Police Department, created in 1923 by August Vollmer, a police chief from Berkeley, California. In the 1930s, Vollmer headed the first U.S. university institute for criminology and criminalistics at the University of California at Berkeley. However, this institute lacked any official status in the university until 1948, when a school of criminology was formed. The famous criminalist Paul Kirk (see Figure 1–4) was selected to head its c riminalistics department. Many graduates of this school have gone on to help develop forensic laboratories in other parts of the state and country. California has numerous federal, state, county, and city crime laboratories, many of which operate independently. However, in 1972 the California Department of Justice embarked on an ambitious plan to create a network of state-operated crime laboratories. As a result, California has created a model system of integrated forensic laboratories consisting of regional and satellite facilities. An informal exchange of information and expertise is facilitated among California's criminalist community through a regional professional society, the California Association of Criminalists. This organization was the forerunner of a number of regional organizations that have developed throughout the United States to foster cooperation among the nation's growing FIGURE 1–4 community of criminalists. Paul Leland Kirk, 1902–1970. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 27 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 27 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long © Bettmann/CORBIS Crime Labs in the United States DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 28 chapter 1 International Crime Labs In contrast to the American system of independent local laboratories, Great Britain had developed a national system of regional laboratories under the direction of the government's Home Office. In the early 1990s, the British Home Office reorganized the country's forensic laboratories into the Forensic Science Service and instituted a system in which police agencies are charged a fee for services rendered by the laboratory. The fee-for-service concept encouraged the creation of a number of private laboratories that provide services to both police and criminal defense attorneys. One such organization is LGC. In 2010, the British government announced the closure of the Forensic Science Service, citing financial losses. The laboratories closed in 2012, and forensic work in England and Wales is now contracted out to the private sector. Since privatization, LGC has grown to be the largest forensic science provider in the United Kingdom, employing more than seven hundred forensic scientists servicing both police agencies and the private sector. In Canada, forensic services are provided by three government-funded institutes: (1) six Royal Canadian Mounted Police regional laboratories, (2) the Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto, and (3) the Institute of Legal Medicine and Police Science in Montreal. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police opened its first laboratory in Regina, Saskatchewan, in 1937. Altogether, more than a hundred countries throughout the world have at least one laboratory facility offering services in the field of forensic science. Organization of a Crime Laboratory The development of crime laboratories in the United States has been characterized by rapid growth accompanied by a lack of national and regional planning and coordination. It is estimated that more than 411 publicly funded crime laboratories currently operate at various levels of government (federal, state, county, and municipal)—more than three times the number of crime laboratories operating in 1966. They employ more than 14,000 full-time personnel. The size and diversity of crime laboratories make it impossible to select any one model that best describes a typical crime laboratory. Although most of these facilities function as part of a police department, others operate under the direction of the prosecutor's or district attorney's office; some work with the laboratories of the medical examiner or coroner. Far fewer are affiliated with universities or exist as independent agencies in government. Laboratory staff sizes range from one person to more than a hundred, and their services may be diverse or specialized, depending on the responsibilities of the agency that houses the laboratory. The Growth of Crime Laboratories Crime laboratories have mostly been organized by agencies that either foresaw their potential application to criminal investigation or were pressed by the increasing demands of casework. Several reasons explain the unparalleled growth of crime laboratories during the past thirtyfive years. Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s were responsible for greater police emphasis on securing scientifically evaluated evidence. The requirement to advise criminal suspects of their constitutional rights and their right of immediate access to counsel has all but eliminated confessions as a routine investigative tool. Successful prosecution of criminal cases requires a thorough and professional police investigation, frequently incorporating the skills of forensic science experts. Modern technology has provided forensic scientists with many new skills and techniques to meet the challenges accompanying their increased participation in the criminal justice system. Coinciding with changing judicial requirements has been the staggering increase in crime rates in the United States over the past forty years. This factor alone would probably have accounted for the increased use of crime laboratory services by police agencies, but only a small percentage of police investigations generate evidence requiring scientific examination. There is, however, one important exception to this observation: drug-related arrests. All illicit-drug seizures must be sent to a forensic laboratory for confirmatory chemical analysis before the case can be adjudicated. Since the mid-1960s, drug abuse has accelerated to nearly uncontrollable # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 28 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 28 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 29 levels and has resulted in crime laboratories being inundated with drug specimens. Current estimates indicate that nearly half of all requests for examination of forensic evidence deal with abused drugs. Future Challenges A more recent impetus leading to the growth and maturation of crime laboratories has been the advent of DNA profiling. Since the early 1990s, this technology has progressed to the point at which traces of blood, semen stains, hair, and saliva residues left behind on stamps, cups, bite marks, and so on have made possible the individualization or near-individualization of biological evidence. To meet the demands of DNA technology, crime labs have expanded staff and in many cases modernized their physical plants. The labor-intensive demands and sophisticated requirements of the technology have affected the structure of the forensic laboratory as has no other technology in the past fifty years. Likewise, DNA profiling has become the dominant factor in explaining how the general public perceives the workings and capabilities of the modern crime laboratory. In coming years an estimated ten thousand forensic scientists will be added to the rolls of both public and private forensic laboratories to process crime-scene evidence for DNA and to acquire DNA profiles, as mandated by state laws, from the hundreds of thousands of individuals convicted of crimes. This endeavor has already added many new scientists to the field and will eventually more than double the number of scientists employed by forensic laboratories in the United States. A major problem facing the forensic DNA community is the substantial backlog of unanalyzed DNA samples from crime scenes. The number of unanalyzed casework DNA samples reported by state and national agencies is more than 57,000. The estimated number of untested convicted offender samples is more than 500,000. In an attempt to eliminate the backlog of convicted offender or arrestee samples to be analyzed and entered into the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), the federal government has initiated funding for in-house analysis of samples at the crime laboratory or outsourcing samples to private laboratories for analysis. Beginning in 2008, California began collecting DNA samples from all people arrested on suspicion of a felony, not waiting until a person is convicted. The state's database, with approximately one million DNA profiles, is already the third largest in the world, behind those maintained by the United Kingdom and the FBI. The federal government plans to begin doing the same. Types of Crime Laboratories Historically, a federal system of government, combined with a desire to retain local control, has produced a variety of independent laboratories in the United States, precluding the creation of a national system. Crime laboratories to a large extent mirror the fragmented law enforcement structure that exists on the national, state, and local levels. Federal Crime Laboratories The federal government has no single law enforcement or investigative agency with unlimited jurisdiction. Four major federal crime laboratories have been created to help investigate and enforce criminal laws that extend beyond the jurisdictional boundaries of state and local forces. The FBI (Department of Justice) maintains the largest crime laboratory in the world. An ultramodern facility housing the FBI's forensic science services is located in Quantico, Virginia (see Figure 1–5). Its expertise and technology support its broad investigative powers. The Drug Enforcement Administration laboratories (Department of Justice) analyze drugs seized in violation of federal laws regulating the production, sale, and transportation of drugs. The laboratories of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (Department of Justice) analyze alcoholic beverages and documents relating to alcohol and firearm excise tax law enforcement and examine weapons, explosive devices, and related evidence to enforce the Gun Control Act of 1968 and the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970. The U.S. Postal Inspection Service maintains laboratories concerned with criminal investigations relating to the postal service. Each of these federal facilities will offer its expertise to any local agency that requests assistance in relevant investigative matters. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 29 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 29 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM (a) Charles Dharapak/AP Images Charles Dharapak/AP Images 30 chapter 1 (b) FIGURE 1–5 (a) Exterior and (b) interior views of the FBI crime laboratory in Quantico, Virginia. State and Local Crime Laboratories Most state governments maintain a crime laboratory to service state and local law enforcement agencies that do not have ready access to a laboratory. Some states, such as Alabama, California, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Texas, Washington, Oregon, Virginia, and Florida, have developed a comprehensive statewide system of regional or satellite laboratories. These operate under the direction of a central facility and provide forensic services to most areas of the state. The concept of a regional laboratory operating as part of a statewide system has increased the accessibility of many local law enforcement agencies to a crime laboratory, while minimizing duplication of services and ensuring maximum interlaboratory cooperation through the sharing of expertise and equipment. Local laboratories provide services to county and municipal agencies. Generally, these facilities operate independently of the state crime laboratory and are financed directly by local government. However, as costs have risen, some counties have combined resources and created multicounty laboratories to service their jurisdictions. Many of the larger cities in the United States maintain their own crime laboratories, usually under the direction of the local police department. Frequently, high population and high crime rates combine to make a municipal facility, such as that of New York City, the largest crime laboratory in the state. Services of the Crime Laboratory Bearing in mind the independent development of crime laboratories in the United States, the wide variation in total services offered in different communities is not surprising. There are many reasons for this, including (1) variations in local laws, (2) the different capabilities and functions of the organization to which a laboratory is attached, and (3) budgetary and staffing limitations. In recent years, many local crime laboratories have been created solely to process drug specimens. Often these facilities were staffed with few personnel and operated under limited budgets. Although many have expanded their forensic services, some still primarily perform drug analyses. However, even among crime laboratories providing services beyond drug identification, the diversity and quality of services rendered vary significantly. For the purposes of this text, I have taken the liberty of arbitrarily designating the following units as those that should constitute a "full-service" crime laboratory. Basic Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Laboratories Physical Science Unit The physical science unit applies principles and techniques of chemistry, physics, and geology to the identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence. It is staffed by criminalists who have the expertise to use chemical tests and modern analytical instrumentation to examine items as diverse as drugs, glass, paint, explosives, and soil. In a laboratory that has a staff large enough to permit specialization, the responsibilities of this unit # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 30 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 30 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 31 may be further subdivided into drug identification, soil and mineral analysis, and examination of a variety of trace physical evidence. Biology Unit The biology unit is staffed with biologists and biochemists who identify and perform DNA profiling on dried bloodstains and other body fluids, compare hairs and fibers, and identify and compare botanical materials such as wood and plants (see Figure 1–6). Firearms Unit The firearms unit examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition of all types. Garments and other objects are also examined to detect firearms discharge residues and to approximate the distance from a target at which a weapon was fired. The basic principles of firearms examination are also applied here to the comparison of marks made by tools (see Figure 1–7). The document examination unit studies the handwriting and typewriting on questioned documents to ascertain authenticity and/or source. Related responsibilities include analyzing paper and ink and examining indented writings (the term usually applied to the partially visible depressions appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the visible writing appears), obliterations, erasures, and burned or charred documents. FIGURE 1–6 A forensic scientist performing DNA analysis. © mediacolor's/Alamy Photography Unit A complete photographic laboratory examines and records physical evidence. Its procedures may require the use of highly specialized photographic techniques, such as digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet, and X-ray photography, to make invisible information visible to the naked eye. This unit also prepares photographic exhibits for courtroom presentation. Photo Researchers, Inc. Document Examination Unit FIGURE 1–7 A forensic analyst examining a firearm. # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 31 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 31 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 32 chapter 1 Optional Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Laboratories The toxicology group examines body fluids and organs to determine the presence or absence of drugs and poisons. Frequently, such functions are shared with or may be the sole responsibility of a separate laboratory facility placed under the direction of the medical examiner's or coroner's office. In most jurisdictions, field instruments such as the Intoxilyzer are used to determine the alcoholic consumption of individuals. Often the toxicology section also trains operators and maintains and services these instruments. Toxicology Unit Latent Fingerprint Unit The latent fingerprint unit processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints when they are submitted in conjunction with other laboratory examinations. The polygraph, or lie detector, has come to be recognized as an essential tool of the criminal investigator rather than the forensic scientist. However, during the formative years of polygraph technology, many police agencies incorporated this unit into the laboratory's administrative structure, where it sometimes remains today. In any case, its functions are handled by people trained in the techniques of criminal investigation and interrogation. Polygraph Unit In cases involving telephoned threats or tape-recorded messages, investigators may require the skills of the voiceprint analysis unit to tie the voice to a particular suspect. To this end, a good deal of casework has been performed with the sound spectrograph, an instrument that transforms speech into a visual display called a voiceprint. The validity of this technique as a means of personal identification rests on the premise that the sound patterns produced in speech are unique to the individual and that the voiceprint displays this uniqueness. Voiceprint Analysis Unit Crime-Scene Investigation Unit The concept of incorporating crime-scene evidence WebExtra 1.1 Take a Tour of a Forensic Laboratory collection into the total forensic science service is slowly gaining recognition in the United States. This unit dispatches specially trained personnel (civilian and/or police) to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence that will later be processed at the crime laboratory. Whatever the organizational structure of a forensic science laboratory may be, specialization must not impede the overall coordination of services demanded by today's criminal investigator. Laboratory administrators need to keep open the lines of communication between analysts (civilian and uniform), crime-scene investigators, and police personnel. Inevitably, forensic investigations require the skills of many individuals. One notoriously high-profile investigation illustrates this process—the search to uncover the source of the anthrax letters mailed shortly after September 11, 2001. Figure 1–8 shows one of the letters and illustrates the multitude of skills required in the investigation—skills possessed by forensic chemists and biologists, fingerprint examiners, and forensic document examiners. Functions of the Forensic Scientist Although a forensic scientist relies primarily on scientific knowledge and skill, only half of the job is performed in the laboratory. The other half takes place in the courtroom, where the ultimate significance of the evidence is determined. The forensic scientist must not only analyze physical evidence but also persuade a jury to accept the conclusions derived from that analysis. Analysis of Physical Evidence First and foremost, the forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to analyze the many types of physical evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation. Of the three major avenues available to police investigators for assistance in solving a crime—confessions, eyewitness accounts by victims or witnesses, and the evaluation of physical evidence retrieved from the crime scene—only physical evidence is free of inherent error or bias. The Importance of Physical Evidence Criminal cases are replete with examples of individuals who were incorrectly charged with and convicted of committing a crime because of faulty memories or lapses in judgment. For example, investigators may be led astray during their preliminary evaluation of the events and circumstances surrounding the commission of a # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 32 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 32 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 33 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 33 # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 33 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long S4carlisle DESIGN SERVICES OF Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM Trace evidence, such as hairs and fibers, may be present within the contents of the envelope. Ink analysis may reveal a pen's manufacturer (pp. 469–73). DNA may be recovered from saliva residues on the back of a stamp (p. 397). However, in this case, the stamp is printed onto the envelope. Paper examination may identify a manufacturer. General appearance, watermarks, fiber analysis, and chemical analysis of pigments, additives, and fillers may reveal a paper's origin (p. 473). Fingerprints may be detectable on paper using a variety of chemical developing techniques (pp. 155–60). FIGURE 1–8 An envelope containing anthrax spores along with an anonymous letter was sent to the office of Senator Tom Daschle shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. A variety of forensic skills were used to examine the envelope and letter. Also, bar codes placed on the front and back of the envelope by mail-sorting machines contain address information and information about where the envelope was first processed. Cellophane tape was used to seal four envelopes containing the anthrax letters. The fitting together of the serrated ends of the tape strips confirmed that they were torn in succession from the same roll of tape (pp. 80–81). DNA may be recovered from saliva used to seal an envelope (p. 415). Handwriting examination reveals that block lettering is consistent with a single writer who wrote three other anthrax letters (pp. 458–63). Indented writing may be deposited on paper left underneath a sheet of paper being written upon. Electrostatic imaging is used to visualize indented impressions on paper (p. 468). Photocopier toner may reveal its manufacturer through chemical and physical properties (p. 464). Getty Images 34 chapter 1 scientific method A process that uses strict guidelines to ensure careful and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information. crime. These errors may be compounded by misleading eyewitness statements and inappropriate confessions. These same concerns don't apply to physical evidence. What about physical evidence allows investigators to sort out facts as they are and not what one wishes they were? The hallmark of physical evidence is that it must undergo scientific inquiry. Science derives its integrity from adherence to strict guidelines that ensure the careful and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information—a process known as the scientific method. The underlying principles of the scientific method provide a safety net to ensure that the outcome of an investigation is not tainted by human emotion or compromised by distorting, belittling, or ignoring contrary evidence. The scientific method begins by formulating a question worthy of investigation, such as who committed a particular crime. The investigator next formulates a hypothesis, a reasonable explanation proposed to answer the question. What follows is the basic foundation of scientific inquiry—the testing of the hypothesis through experimentation. The testing process must be thorough and recognized by other scientists as valid. Scientists and investigators must accept the experimental findings even when they wish they were different. Finally, when the hypothesis is validated by experimentation, it becomes suitable as scientific evidence, appropriate for use in a criminal investigation and ultimately available for admission in a court of law. Determining Admissibility of Evidence In rejecting the scientific validity of the lie detector (polygraph), the District of Columbia Circuit Court in 1923 set forth what has since become a standard guideline for determining the judicial admissibility of scientific examinations. In Frye v. United States,1 the court stated the following: Just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between the experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define. Somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential force of the principle must be recognized, and while the courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs. To meet the Frye standard, the court must decide whether the questioned procedure, technique, or principle is "generally accepted" by a meaningful segment of the relevant scientific community. In practice, this approach required the proponent of a scientific test to present to the court a collection of experts who could testify that the scientific issue before the court is generally accepted by the relevant members of the scientific community. Furthermore, in determining whether a novel technique meets criteria associated with "general acceptance," courts have frequently taken note of books and papers written on the subject, as well as prior judicial decisions relating to the reliability and general acceptance of the technique. In recent years this approach has engendered a great deal of debate as to whether it is sufficiently flexible to deal with new and novel scientific issues that may not have gained widespread support within the scientific community. Other Standards of Admissibility As an alternative to the Frye standard, some courts came to believe that the Federal Rules of Evidence espoused a more flexible standard that did not rely on general acceptance as an absolute prerequisite for admitting scientific evidence. Part of the Federal Rules of Evidence governs the admissibility of all evidence, including expert testimony, in federal courts, and many states have adopted codes similar to those of the Federal Rules. Specifically, Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence deals with the admissibility of expert testimony: If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise, if (1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case. In a landmark ruling in the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.,2 the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that "general acceptance," or the Frye standard, is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence under the Federal Rules of Evidence. 1 2 293 Fed. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923). 509 U.S. 579 (1993). # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 34 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 34 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM science and technology in criminal investigation 35 © Art Lien, Court Artist FIGURE 1–9 Sketch of a U.S. Supreme Court hearing. According to the Court, the Rules of Evidence—especially Rule 702—assign to the trial judge the task of ensuring that an expert's testimony rests on a reliable foundation and is relevant to the case. Although this ruling applies only to federal courts, many state courts are expected to use this decision as a guideline in setting standards for the admissibility of scientific evidence. Judging Scientific Evidence What the Court advocates in Daubert is that trial judges assume the ultimate responsibility for acting as a "gatekeeper" in judging the admissibility and reliability of scientific evidence presented in their courts (see Figure 1–9). The Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge the veracity of scientific evidence, emphasizing that the inquiry should be flexible. Suggested areas of inquiry include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication The technique's potential rate of error Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique's operation Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community Some legal practitioners have expressed concern that abandoning Frye's general-acceptance test will result in the introduction of absurd and irrational pseudoscientific claims in the courtroom. The Supreme Court rejected these concerns: In this regard the respondent seems to us to be overly pessimistic about the capabilities of the jury and of the adversary system generally. Vigorous cross-examination, presentation of contrary evidence, and careful instruction on the burden of proof are the traditional and appropriate means of attacking shaky but admissible evidence. In a 1999 decision, Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael,3 the Court unanimously ruled that the "gatekeeping" role of the trial judge applied not only to scientific testimony, but to all expert testimony: We conclude that Daubert's general holding—setting forth the trial judge's general "gatekeeping" obligation—applies not only to testimony based on "scientific" knowledge, but also to testimony based on "technical" and "other specialized" knowledge. . . . We also conclude 3 526 U.S. 137 (1999). # 150233 Cust: Pearson Au: Saferstein Pg. No. 35 An Introduction to Forensic Science Server: Jobs4 Title: Criminalistics: M01_SAFE2020_11_GE_CH01.indd 35 C/M/Y/K Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 5/8/14 11:31 AM 36 chapter 1 that a trial court may consider one or more of the more specific factors that Daubert mentioned when doing so will help determine that testimony's reliability. But, as the Court stated in Daubert, the test of reliability is "flexible," and Daubert's list of specific factors neither necessarily nor exclusively applies to all experts in every case. A leading case that exemplifies the type of flexibility and wide discretion that the Daubert ruling apparently gives trial judges in matters of scientific inquiry is Coppolino v. State.4 Here a medical examiner testified to his finding that the victim had died of an overdose of a drug known as succinylcholine chloride. This drug had never before been detected in the human body. The medical examiner's findings were dependent on a toxicological report that identified an abnormally high concentration of succinic acid, a breakdown product of the drug, in the victim's body. The defense argued that this test for the presence of succinylcholine chloride was new and the absence of corroborative experimental data by other scientists meant that it had not y

Forensic Science an Introduction 4th Edition Chapter 1 Review Answers

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Forensic Science an Introduction 4th Edition Chapter 1 Review Answers

Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science

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